JAPANESE MINKA XXXII - PLANNING 10: TWO-ROOM DWELLINGS 5

In this entry on two-room layouts (ni-madori 二間取り), we will consider a few examples of mu-doma taka-yuka keishiki (無土間高床形式), or ‘no-doma raised-floor type’ two-room minka, in which there is no earth-floored utility area (doma 土間). In its place, there is a raised-floor (taka-yuka 高床) space that fulfils all the functions of the doma; unlike the doma, however, this space also hosts ‘non-utility’ activities such as dining, and is thus considered a fully-fledged room and counted as such when it comes to classifying a plan-form.

The plan below, from the mountainous Iya (祖谷) district in Shikoku, is a ‘transverse division’ (tate-bunwari 竪分割), ‘longitudinal lineup’ (heiretsu-gata 併列型 or 並列型) two-room plan-form (ni-madori 二間取り). It consists of a ‘dining-kitchen’ room called the uchi-no-ma (うちのま) and a zashiki-like room called the omote-no-ma (おもてのま) that combines the functions of ‘living room’ (omote) and ‘formal room’ (zashiki). Without a doma, entry is instead via the board-floored ‘verandah’ (kiri-en 切り縁) running the full length of the front/façade side of the building. There is a full partition between the two rooms, and the ‘living functions’ (seikatsu-naiyou 生活内容) of the uchi-no-ma are substantial, qualifying this as a true two-room dwelling. Both rooms contain a firepit (usually irori いろり, in the local dialect yururi ゆるり).

A ‘transverse division’ (tate-bunwari 竪分割) ‘longitudinal lineup’ (heiretsu-gata 併列型 or 並列型) two-room plan-form (ni-madori 二間取り) from the Iya (祖谷) district in Shikoku. The 15-mat (approx. 25m²) uchi-no-ma (うちのま) is counted as a room. It contains the firepit (yururi ゆるり), sink (nagashi ナガシ), water (mizu 水), tea preparation area (mizu-ya 水や) and stove (kamado かまど). The 12.5-mat (approx. 20m²) ‘living room’ (omote-no-ma おもてのま) contains another firepit, closets (oshi-komi 押込み), Buddhist altar (marked 卍), and Shinto ‘shrine’ (kami-dana 神棚). On the ‘verandah’ (kiri-en 切り縁) are the bathing area (mokuyoku-jо̄ 沐浴場) and toilet (benjo 便所).

Compare the plan above with another fully board-floored minka covered in a previous post on one-room dwellings (hito-ma sumai ひと間住まい), shown below. Here, although the doma equivalent (in this case called the uchi うち) is a board-floored space (ita-ma 板間), it hosts only utility activities, and there is only a board screen (ita-kakoi 板囲い) between the uchi and the omote (おもて), not full, operable fittings (tategu 建具). For these reasons it is classified as a one-room layout (hito-ma dori ひと間取り or isshitsu-gata １室型).

A one-room (hito-ma dori ひと間取り) minka with a board-floored (ita-ma 板間) ‘doma’ (here called the uchi うち) that is not counted as a room.

An unusual feature of minka in the Iya area is that the toilet (benjo 便所) and bathing place (mokuyoku-jо̄ 沐浴場) are given prominent position in the middle of the south-facing façade, which may seem irrational to anyone accustomed to wet areas being hidden away on the dark side of the house. Perhaps this was the result of the desire for sunlight (hygiene) and warmth, or to avoid having to route wastewater away from the upslope side of the house, or to obtain the floor-to-ground height necessary for a ‘drop’ or pit toilet and make collection of waste more convenient. The original conditions that motivated it may have been long forgotten by the time these minka were surveyed in the mid-20th century, with the plan-form surviving due to the inertia of custom.

Exterior of a longitudinal lineup (heiretsu-gata 併列型) three-room (san-madori ３間取り) minka in the Iya district of Shikoku. The toilet (benjo 便所) and bathing place (mokuyoku-jо̄ 沐浴場), given privacy by only a basic privacy screen, can be seen projecting from the facade.

On the northern, ‘mountain side’ of these minka there is a narrow interior space formed between the rows of inner posts (jо̄ya-bashira 上屋柱) and outer posts (geya-bashira 下屋柱). Storage (oshi-komi 押込み), Buddhist altars (butsudan 仏壇), Shintо̄ shrines (kami-dana 神棚, lit. ‘god shelf’) and even small bedrooms (shinshitsu 寝室) might be inserted into these spaces, in accordance with the post spacing (hashira-wari 柱割り).

With rising individual fortunes and general progress over time, many of these two-room minka developed into three-room ‘longitudinal lineup’ (san-shitsu heiretsu 三室併列) layouts, and then eventually into staggered (kui-chigai 食違い) or regular (seikei 整形) six-room layouts (roku-madori 六間取り).

Example of the transformation of a ‘longitudinal lineup’ two-room layout (ni-madori ２間取り) minka (first plan) in the Iya district into a longitudinal lineup (heiretsu-gata 併列型), three-room (san-madori ３間取り) then four-room layout, with separate bedroom/s, then into a staggered (kui-chigai-kata 食違い型) six-room (roku-madori ６間取り) layout, and finally into a regular (seikei 整形) six-room layout (roku-madori ６間取り).

In the mansions and villas (yashiki 屋敷) of the upper classes, complex layouts provisioned with formal entry ‘vestibules’ (genkan 玄関) and ‘upper rooms’ (jо̄dan-no-ma 上段の間, formal rooms whose floor level is a step above that of the regular rooms) can also be seen.

A jо̄dan-no-ma (上段の間) in an upper-class residence.

JAPANESE MINKA XXXI - PLANNING 9: TWO-ROOM DWELLINGS 4

The plan below is of a ‘transverse lineup’ type (jūretsu-gata 縦列型) minka in Mie Prefecture. Though it is a two-room layout (ni-madori ニ間取り), part of the earth-floored utility area (often doma 土間 but here called the niwa にわ) has been transformed into a raised timber floor to be used as a ‘dining room’ (daidoko だいどこ). This area is an open space that lacks the character of a full room, with no partitions or posts dividing it from the niwa, and so the plan is not classified as a three-room layout, though it comes close.

A ‘transverse lineup’ type (jūretsu-gata 縦列型) two-room layout (ni-madori ニ間取り) plan of a minka in Mie Prefecture.

Labelled in the main plan are: firewood storage (netsuryо̄ okiba 熱量置場) and bath entry (nyū-yoku 入浴); the various earth-floored utility areas: the niwa (にわ) for food preparation (shokumotsu chо̄sei 食物調整) and with shelves (todana 戸棚), sink (nagashi ナガシ), and water (mizu 水); the ‘front niwa’ (mae-niwa 前にわ) for agricultural work (nо̄-sagyо̄ 農作業) and feed preparation (shiryо̄ chо̄sei 飼料調整) and with entrance doma (iriguchi doma 入口土間), main entrance (о̄do 大戸, lit. ‘big door’) and an unfixed low platform called an oki-kura 置座, lit. ‘put seat’); the ‘earth-sitting’ (土座) and presumably mat-floored stove area (kamaza かまざ) with ‘big stove’ (о̄-kama 大カマ); and the stable (umaya うまや) for raising livestock (kachiku shi-iku 家畜飼育) and composting (taihi zо̄sei 堆肥造成); and the raised timber-floored areas: the ‘dining area’ (daidoko だいどこ), spread with mats (mushiro-jiki 莚敷), for dining (shokuji 食事) family time (danran 団らん) hand-work (te-shigoto 手仕事), housework (kaji 家事), and receiving visitors (о̄tai 応対); the formal room (usually zashiki 座敷, here dei でい) with closet (oshi-ire 押入) and Buddhist altar (butsudan 仏壇, marked with swastika manji 卍), for ‘events’ (gyо̄-ji 行事), entertaining guests (sekkyaku 接客) and sleeping (shūshin 就寝); and the bedroom (oku おく) for sleeping and storage of family valuables (kazai shūnо̄ 家財収納). Mie Prefecture.

Labelled in the smaller plans: shin 寝 bedroom, za 座 formal room, dai 台 dining room, kama 釜 stove area, ushi 牛 stable, and i 居 ‘living room’.

The three smaller plans below the main plan show the various stages in the transformation of this layout into one of five or six rooms. First, the open daidoko is partitioned off into a proper room, and another room, the ‘living room’ (ima 居間, abbr. i 居) is added, resulting in a staggered four-room layout (kui-chigai yon-madori 食違い四間取り); this then develops into a regular (seikei 整形) five- or six-room layout (go-ma kara roku-madori ５間～６間取り) with the addition of two zashiki (座敷, abbr., za 座) rooms to the west (assuming south is at the bottom of the plan), with the daidoko in the five-room example shown now as an irregular appendage to the four regularly-arranged rooms.

There are minka on the Shima Peninsula (Shima-hantо̄ 志魔半島) in Mie Prefecture in which the ‘raised floor transformation’ has achieved its maximum development and the doma has been reduced to a small ‘step-in’ entrance area (fumi-komi 踏込み). An unusual aspect of these houses is that the stove (kamado かまど) and firepit (irori いろり) are located in a mat-spread (mushiro-jiki 莚敷) ‘earth-sitting’ (doza keishiki 土座形式) area at the rear of the stable (umaya-oku 廐奥). Floor plan development in this type of minka is as follows: partitions are added at the boundary of the doma to form a ‘dining room’ (daidokoro or daidoko); in front of this a ‘lower formal room’ (shimo-zashiki 下座敷) is added; the plan becomes a staggered four-room plan (kui-chigai yon-madori 食違い四間取り); then to the shimo-zashiki an ‘upper’ zashiki for receiving guests (sekkyaku-bu 接客部) is appended as a kagi-zashiki (鍵座敷, lit. ‘key zashiki’), i.e. a zashiki that protrudes from the main rectangular body of the plan, resulting in a type of L-plan (kagi-ya 鍵家, lit. ‘key house’) known as kagi-zashiki keishiki (鍵座敷形式, lit. ‘key zashiki type’; also known as kagi-za-gata 鍵座型, or simply kagi-za 鍵座 for short) in which the kagi-zashiki room forms the short leg of the ‘L’. The final form of the plan’s development is a regular six-room layout (seikei roku-madori 整形六間取り). The kagi-zashiki is appointed with formal alcove (tokonoma 床の間) and shelves (tana 棚), ample closets (oshi-ire 押入), and is completed with a ‘verandah’ (engawa 縁側).

A transformation of a similar nature occurred in the very old and famous Hakogi house (Hakogi-ke jūtaku 箱木家住宅), a minka in Hyо̄go Prefecture.

Plan of the Hakogi house as appeared after many centuries of additions and alterations and before it was restored. It is a regular six-room layout, with seventh three-mat room projecting out into the large niwa (にわ).

Plan of the Hakogi house after it was restored to its presumed near-original state, with adjacent detached structure (hanare 離れ) formed by removing the middle two rooms. The main house is a ‘front zashiki’ type (mae-zashiki keishiki 前座敷形式) three-room layout (san-madori 三間取り) and consists of the earth-floored niwa (にわ) and stable (umaya うまや), and the three raised-floor rooms: the ‘dining room’ (daidoko だいどこ), ‘bedroom’ (nando なんど), and ‘living room’ or ‘front room’ (omote おもて).

Exterior view of the southern façade of the Hakogi house, with detached outbuilding (hanare) to the left.

Interior view of the Hakogi house, taken from the niwa and looking towards the daidoko on the right and the omote on the left.

The Hakogi house was originally a ‘transverse lineup’ (jūretsu-gata 縦列型) two-room (ni-madori 二間取り) plan. There are (or were) other minka with similar plan-forms in the area; the plan below represents one example. The lack of concordance between the post divisions (柱割り hashira-wari) and the modern tatami mat divisions (tatami-wari 畳割り), the adze-finished (chо̄na-shiage ちょうな仕上げ) timber members, and the stonework (ishi-tsumi 石積み) beneath the floor are all indications that this, like the Hakogi house, is a very old minka.

The larger plan is of a two-room (ni-shitsu ２室) ‘transverse lineup’ (jūretsu-gata 縦列型) minka in the Hokusetsu district (Hokusetsu chihо̄ 北摂地方) in Hyо̄go Prefecture. Labelled are: the utility area (niwa にわ), with entry area (iriguchi doma 入口土間), door (to 戸), a stone called the urakachi ishi (ワラカチ石, lit. ‘???? stone’), rice winnowing machine (tо̄mi 唐箕), stove (kudo くど), lever mortar (kara-usu カラウス), sink (nagashi ナガシ), water (mizu 水), for agricultural work (nо̄sagyо̄ 濃作業), food preparation (shokumotsu chо̄sei 食物調整), and food storage (shokuryо̄ chozо̄ 食糧貯貯蔵); the zashiki ざしき with board (ita 板) floor and board partitions (ita-do 板戸), for ‘events’ (gyо̄ji 行事), entertaining guests (sekkyaku 接客), and sleeping (shūshin 就寝); the dining room (daidokoro だいどころ), open (hо̄kai 開放) to the niwa, with firepit (irori いろり) and shelves (todana 戸棚), for eating (shokuji 食事), family time (danran 団らん), receiving visitors (о̄tai 応対), and handwork (te-shigoto 手仕事) in the evenings (yoru 夜); the fully plastered (nurigome ぬりごめ) bedroom (heya へや), for husband and wife’s sleeping (fūfu shūshin 夫婦就寝); and the open (hо̄kai 開放) verandah (engawa 縁側, not labelled), for handwork and receiving visitors during the day (hiru 昼).

The five smaller plans illustrate the layout development (madori no hatten 間取りの発展) and enlargement of the minka. In the first plan the two-room transverse lineup (ni-shitsu jūretsu-gata２室縦列型) gains a bedroom (寝) in addition to the original dining room (台), zashiki (座), niwa, and stable (牛); in the second plan, it gains another bedroom and a partition to the niwa; in the third plan, it gains a second zashiki, a ‘walk-in closet’ (入), an enclosed verandah, and a third, rear entrance, to become a five (or six if you count the closet) room layout; in the fourth plan, it becomes a six-room layout proper, with one of the zashiki becoming a living room (居), the appearance of a raised-floor ‘vestibule’ or genkan (玄), and the relocation of the sink; finally, in the fifth plan, we arrive at a regular (seikei 整形) six-room (roku-madori ６間取り) L-plan (tsunoya-zukuri つのや造り), where the bedrooms are separated by storage (shūnо̄ 収納) and the zashiki is extended out to form the short leg of the ‘L’.

To protect against the cold and prevent drafts, the external walls to the bedroom (heya へや) are fully plastered. Walls in which the timber structure is fully covered with plaster or cladding are called о̄-kabe (大壁, lit. ‘big wall’) and are by far the most common external wall method in modern residential building in Japan, but in traditional Japanese architecture о̄-kabe external walls are more typically associated with storehouses, castles, etc., in contrast to the half-timbered (shin-kabe 真壁, lit. ‘true wall’ or ‘real wall’) walls generally found on minka. In some areas where ‘plastering in’ (nuri-gome 塗り籠め) the bedroom in this way is the custom, the bedroom itself has come to be referred to metonymically by the name nuri-gome.

Detail plans showing the three main types of wall (kabe 壁) construction; a single post (hashira 柱) is shown to represent the timber structure. On the left, о̄-kabe (大壁) on both exterior and interior sides; in the middle, shin-kabe (真壁) on both exterior and interior sides; on the right, о̄-kabe on (presumably) the exterior and shin-kabe (真壁) on the interior.

The transverse division (jūretsu-gata 縦列型) three-room (san-madori 三間どり) minka that are widely distributed across the Hokusetsu (北摂) region (northern О̄saka Prefecture, inland south-eastern Hyо̄go Prefecture) and the Tanba (丹波) region (central Kyо̄to Prefecture, north-eastern Hyо̄go Prefecture, part of О̄saka Prefecture), are thought to have this type of ni-madori layout as their prototype. The path of development of this plan-form is as follows: originally a two-room plan (ni-madori 二間取り), a bedroom (heya へや) has been created by partitioning off a corner of the dining room (daidokoro だいどころ). The line of the bedroom is extended ‘vertically’ (transversely) to form a partition, giving a ‘front zashiki’ layout (mae-zashiki keishiki 前座敷形式); then the zashiki is divided, resulting in a regular six-room plan (seikei roku-madori 整形六間取り). In this stage the bedroom (shinshitsu 寝室) gains storage areas like closets (oshi-ire 押入) and shelves (todana 戸棚), and the zashiki (座敷) is equipped with formal features such as the decorative alcove (toko 床) and shelves (tana 棚). If the further formality of a separate guest reception room (sekkyaku-bu 接客部) is required, an L-shaped plan (tsuno-ya つのや or kagi-ya 鍵家) is adopted.

The complexity and extent of the transformations of these timber-framed structures show how adaptable and dynamic they were, and are a reminder that ‘renovation’ is not just a modern phenomenon. Because many restored minka survive today as static museum pieces, it is easy to forget that they were once lived-in houses, constantly evolving as demands and conditions required.

JAPANESE MINKA XXX - PLANNING 8: TWO-ROOM DWELLINGS 3

Shown below is a two-room (ni-madori ２間取り) L-plan house (kagi-ya-zukuri 鍵家造り, lit. ‘key house construction’), a type relatively common in the Musashino (武蔵野) district, current day Saitama Prefecture, in which a bedroom (oku おく) has been added to the rear of the single-room zashiki (ざしき) to form the ‘L’. This type of plan-form is called ushiro-zuno (うしろづの, lit. ‘rear corner’) or ushiro-magari (うしろまがり, lit. ‘rear bend’). As these names suggest, the ushiro-zuno/magari differs from the typical kagi-ya in that the ‘leg’ of the L is at the rear, and not on the façade side of the house. Development of the plan is as follows: first, part of the large doma is given a board floor to become the hiroma (広間), resulting in something close to a hiroma-type three-room layout (hiroma-gata san-madori 広間型三間取り); the plan may then further develop into a four-room layout (yon-madori 四間取り).

An L-plan house (kagi-ya 鍵家) in Saitama Prefecture. Labelled are the main room (zashiki ざしき) for receiving and entertaining guests (sekkyaku, о̄tai 接客, 応対), ‘events’ or ‘functions’ (gyо̄ji 行事), sleeping (shūshin 就寝), and containing an alcove (toko とこ) and Buddhist altar (butsudan 仏壇) indicated with a swastika (manji 卍); the bedroom (oku おく) used for sleeping (shūshin 就寝), storage of family possessions (kazai-okiba 家財置場), and as a childbirth room (sanshitsu 産室), with a separate passage (tsūro 通路) for the midwife (sanpu 産婦); the doma, here called the daidokoro (だいどころ), for food preparation (shokumotsu-chо̄sei 食物調整), food storage (shokuryо̄-chozо̄ 食糧貯蔵), agricultural work (nо̄-sagyо̄ 農作業), and handwork (te-shigoto 手仕事), and containing the main entrance (tobukuchi とぶくち), rear entrance (setoguchi せとくち), stoves (kamaba かまば), and firepit (irori いろり), which unusually is located up against the walls in a corner.

The smaller plan below is an example of a kagi-ya that has developed a third room, a living room (ima 居間, here i 居), by adding a timber floor to part of the doma. In addition to the bedroom (nema 寝間, here ne 寝) that forms the initial wing or leg of the ‘L’, it also has a second leg: the ‘kitchen’ area (marked kama 釜) extended out from the original doma, making the plan arguably more of a ‘C-plan’, called in Japanese kudo-zukuri (くど造り, lit. ‘stove construction’, after the fact that some stoves have the shape of a comma or C).

Exterior view of a modest kagi-ya

JAPANESE MINKA XXXIX - PLANNING 7: TWO-ROOM DWELLINGS 2

Shown below is a plan-form common in the Kawachi (河内) district (in what is now О̄saka Prefecture) of the Yamato region of western Japan. The plan is classified as a ‘longitudinal division’ or yoko-bunwari (横分割) layout. Confusingly, it also falls under the sub-classifications jūretsu-gata (縦列型, lit. ‘transverse line-up type’) or tate-narabi (竪ならび or 竪並び, lit. ‘transverse line-up’); these sub-classifications are redundant in the case of two-room minka and add no information to the yoko-bunwari classification, but will become significant when we get around to considering minka with three or more rooms.

At this point a digression into plan-form naming conventions might be in order (refer to table below for the schematic representation). The seeming contradiction of a plan being described as both ‘longitudinal’ (yoko 横) and ‘transverse’ (tate 縦 or 竪) can be explained by the fact that, while the direction of the divisions (the walls) is longitudinal (yoko), the resultant ‘ganging’ or ‘stacking’ of the rooms is in the transverse direction (tate), just as if you stack some blocks into a tower, the lines between the blocks are horizontal (yoko), but the tower itself is vertical (tate).

Conversely, the other main classification of minka plan-forms, ‘transverse division’ or tate-bunwari (竪分割), has its own sub-classifications: heiretsu-gata (併列型 or 並列型), lit. ‘parallel/horizontal line-up type’; hei 併 can be considered equivalent in meaning to yoko, i.e. ‘longitudinal’) and yoko-narabi (横ならび or 横並び, lit. ‘longitudinal line-up’). In this case, while the direction of the divisions (the walls) is transverse (tate), the resultant ‘ganging’ or ‘stacking’ of the rooms is in the longitudinal direction (yoko), just as the lines between the books on a bookshelf are vertical (tate), but the line of books itself is horizontal (yoko). Again these sub-classifications are redundant in the case of two-room minka and add no information to the tate-bunwari classification until we get to discussing three-room minka.

At any rate, the plan features a large doma, here called a niwa (にわ) with an enclosure near the entrance called the shimo-mise (しもみせ) or shimo-beya (しもべや) for the storage of agricultural implements; in other regions there would normally be a stable (umaya 廐) in this position. At the rear of the doma is the kama-ya (釜屋), the cooking area containing the stove (kama 釜). In front of the kama-ya is a bulkhead (tare-kabe 垂れ壁, lit. ‘hanging wall’) whose purpose is to prevent smoke from the stove from spreading to the habitable rooms of the house. The front part of the timber-floored (yuka-za 床座) area is occupied by the public-facing (omote-muki 表向き) room called the oku (おく), equivalent of the zashiki (座敷); at the rear is the oie (おいえ), corresponding to a ‘family/dining’ room. At the boundary of the niwa and the raised floor rooms is a kind of ochi-en (落ち縁, lit. ‘dropped edge’), a board-floored area lower than the raised floor rooms but higher than the niwa. Here the ochi-en is called a hamayuka (浜床, lit. ‘shore floor’) or hiroshiki (広敷, lit. ‘wide spread’). In older minka, instead of a fixed ochi-en there might have been a moveable oki-yuka-tsukue (置床几, lit. ‘put floor table’). There are closets (oshi-ire 押入) in the two rooms, but no decorative alcove (tokonoma 床の間) or Buddhist altar (butsudan 仏壇).

A 縦列型２間取り in the Kawachi district of О̄saka Prefecture. The smaller plans below the main plan show the plan-form development of minka in this area from single-room, to extension of the interior by the enclosure of the area under the eaves into a two-room plan, further extending and enclosing the eaves, adding a bedroom to make a front-zashiki three-room layout (mae-zashiki-gata san-madori 前座敷型３間取り), to the addition of a ‘Buddha room’ (butsuma 仏間) to arrive at a regular four-room plan-form (seikei yon-madori 整形４間取り).

The five plan diagrams below the main floor plan present the simplest path of evolution of this plan-form. The one-room dwelling is the departure point; first the perimeter area under the eaves is infilled and the dwelling expands into a two-room dwelling; the plan develops into a front-zashiki layout (mae-zashiki-gata 前座敷型) and then into a regular four-room layout (seikei yon-madori 整形４間取り). A board ‘verandah’ (nure-en 濡れ縁) is added at the front of the zashiki, making the space more open and formal in character. The two-room ‘longitudinal division’ (yoko-bunwari 横分割) minka characteristic of this region does not evolve into a regular four-room layout (seikei yon-madori 整形４間取り) via a three-room hiroma-gata san-madori (広間型３間取り) stage, as is the case with the ‘transverse division’ (tate-bunwari 竪分割) plan-form, but rather via an intermediate three-room front-zashiki (mae-zashiki-gata san-madori 前座敷型３間取り) stage.

Table of plan-form classifications.

Note the different paths taken by the two possible forms of two-room layout (here ni-shitsu-gata ２室型) in their evolution into regular (seikei 整形) or staggered (kui-chigai 食違い) four-room layouts (yon-madori ４間取り): the ‘transverse division’ (tate-bunwari 竪分割) two-room layout first becomes a ‘hiroma-type’ three-room layout (hiroma-gata san-madori 広間型３間取り) before gaining a fourth room; whereas the ‘longitudinal division’ (yoko-bunwari 横分割) two-room layout first becomes a ‘front zashiki’ three-room layout (mae-zashiki-gata san-madori 前座敷型３間取り) before gaining a fourth room.

Exterior view of a two-room jūretsu-gata (縦列) minka similar to that shown in the plan above. The exterior is extended out under the tiled eaves. О̄saka Prefecture.

The plans below are another example of a two-room ‘transverse line-up’ (jūretsu ni-madori 縦列２間取り) minka evolving over a series of incremental expansions into a regular four-room layout (seikei yon-madori 整形４間取り) with a large and complex doma (どま).　　

A minka in Nagano prefecture that over successive additions has developed from its initial ‘transverse line-up’ layout (jūretsu ni-madori 縦列２間取り), with a strongly closed character, into a regular four room plan-form (seikei yon-madori 整形４間取り). First the doma is extended and organised into different functional areas. Finally the raised-floor part is extended with the addition of formal rooms for receiving guests. Labelled are the earth-floored doma (どま) with entrance (о̄to 大戸), ‘bedroom’ (goza (ござ), ‘living room’ (chanoma ちゃのま, lit. ‘tea room’), ‘tool room’ (miso-beya みそべや), kitchen (daidokoro だいどころ), stable (umaya うまや), firepit (irori いろり), sink (nagashi ながし), toilet (benjo 便所), stove (kamado かまど), shelving (todana 戸棚), rice (kome 米), closet (oshi-ire 押入), decorative alcove (toko とこ), front formal room (mae-deno-zashiki まえでのざしき), rear formal room (oku-deno-zashiki おくでのざしき), verandah (nure-en 濡れ縁, not labelled), ‘god shelf’ (kami-dana 神棚) and Buddhist altar (butsudan 仏壇) indicated with a swastika (manji 卍). The black circles represent the original or ‘old’ posts (ko-bashira 古柱); the circles with diagonal line through them are ‘middle old’ posts (chūko-bashira) added in the second stage; open circles are the ‘new’ posts (shin-bashira) added in the third stage.

JAPANESE MINKA XXXVIII - PLANNING 6: TWO-ROOM DWELLINGS 1

After covering single-space dwellings (tanshitsu sumai 単室住まい) and one-room dwellings (hito-ma sumai ひと間住まい) in the previous five posts in this series on minka planning, the logical next step is to consider two-room dwellings (futa-ma sumai 二間住まい). Obviously the addition of a second room, and then the development of two-room minka into dwellings of three, four or more rooms, introduces many more complexities and layout possibilities than are possible in a one-room dwelling, and so this and subsequent sections will be correspondingly longer.

The two-room plan-form (futa-madori-gata 二間取り型 or ni-shitsu-gata２室型) consists of three spaces: 1) the (usually) earth-floored utility area (doma 土間), which is considered a ‘given’ and not counted as a room; 2) a multi-functional ‘living room’; and 3) a room whose name, nema (寝間, lit. ‘sleep space’) for example, generally relates to its role as a bedroom, but which also doubles as a space for various other activities during the day. The arrangement of these three spaces relative to one another in any minka determines the classification of its plan-form into one of two general types: 1) ‘transverse division’ (tate bunwari 竪分割; tate 竪 is often translated as ‘vertical’ but has a wider, harder to capture sense of ‘height’, ‘front-back’, ‘north-south’, etc.), in which the internal partition between the two rooms runs transversely, i.e. perpendicular to the roof ridge; and 2) ‘longitudinal division’ (yoko bunwari 横分割; yoko 割 can mean ‘horizontal’, but also ‘side-to-side’ etc.), in which the principal partition is longitudinal, i.e. parallel to the ridge. These two types form the basis for all other multi-room layouts.

The table below presents plan-forms for (from left to right) one-room (hito-ma sumai ひと間住まい, here isshitsu-gata １室型) , two-room (ni-shitsu-gata ２室型), three-room (san-shitsu-gata ２室型), four-room (yon-shitsu-gata ４室型) with its ‘staggered’ (kui-chigai 食違い) and ‘standard’ (hyо̄jun 標準) regular (seikei 整形) forms (kata 型), and multi-room (tashitsu-gata 多室型) minka. The ridges of these dwellings run left-right (horizontally) on the page; doma are omitted but should be visualised as positioned to the right of the rooms in each plan.

Ideally, minka are oriented with one long side facing south, and this side is the front or façade of the dwelling; although of course in reality topography and other considerations mean that there are plenty of minka oriented in other directions, minka almost always have a dominant façade. In the table, the façade corresponds to the lower edge of the plans, i.e. north is at the top of the page, south at the bottom, east to the right, and west to the left). This means that there are two ‘front/public - rear/private’ axes at play in the typical minka: the east-west (right-left in the table) axis that relates to the position of the (east-positioned) doma, and the south-north (bottom-top in the table) axis that relates to the position of the façade, or ultimately to the position of the midday sun.

There are really only two possible two-room plan-forms: tate bunwari (竪分割) and yoko bunwari (横分割). In the prototypical tate bunwari plan, both rooms run the full width of the house. The ‘front room’, corresponding functionally to a ‘living room’ and called the hiroma (ひろま) in the table, is adjacent to and fully bounds the doma. The ‘back room’, here called the zashiki (ざしき), has no direct access to the doma; to reach the doma from the zashiki one must pass through the hiroma. Both rooms have access to the southern façade, and on this axis each room has its own front/public half to the south and rear/private half to the north. In tate bunwari the east-west doma axis is arguably the dominant of the two axes.

In yoko bunwari, both rooms bound roughly half the doma on their short sides; in the table, the ‘front’ or ‘living’ room is called the omote (おもて) and the rear ‘bedroom’ is called the nema (ねま). The doma can be accessed directly from either room, but only the omote has façade access; in yoko bunwari, the south-north façade axis is arguably dominant.

Classification table of various minka plan-forms. The two possible two-room layouts are shown in the second column under the heading ni-shitsu-gata (２室型).

Two-room minka were common among both the farmhouses (nо̄-minka 農民家) of low-status Edo period farmers, and the minka of the poor into recent times. In these houses, there were no distinguished guests or any need to host formal gatherings, and these simple plan-forms can be regarded as fulfilling all the requirements of the inhabitants. The plan below shows a fully earth-floored dwelling (doza-sumai 土座住まい) with a ‘transverse division’ (tate bunwari 竪分割) layout, with the sub-classification ‘longitudinal line-up two-room’ (heiretsu ni-madori 併列２間取り). This somewhat confusing and apparently contradictory terminology will be explained in next week’s post. The dwelling is primitive, with almost nothing in the way of openings. Such houses can be found in cold, snowy regions, where the deep accumulation of snow (multiple metres in some areas) in winter makes openings somewhat ineffective for the purpose of maximising natural light into the interior; to the contrary, windows are a liability in terms of thermal performance, so it makes sense that the dwelling essentially functions as a den or lair over the winter months.

A west-facing two-room (ni-madori２間取り) dwelling with doma (土間) and the two rooms: the general living room (zashiki ざしき) and sleeping room (dei でい). Typically the zashiki denotes the more formal, inner area, but here the nomenclature is seemingly reversed, with the dei taking that role; what is here called the zashiki is more usually called the hiroma or omote. The doma is used for farmwork (nо̄-sagyо̄ 農作業), food storage (shokuryо̄ chozо̄ 食糧貯蔵), and contains the entrance (iriguchi 入口), bath (furo ふろ), and a plank-floored area for cooking (suiji 炊事), dining (shokuji 食事), and handwork (teshigoto 手仕事). The 18-mat zashiki is for dining (shokuji 食事), family (danran 団らん), socialising (kо̄sai 交際), and sleeping (shūshin 就寝). The 9-mat dei is for sleeping (shūshin 就寝), faith-related activity (shinkо̄ 信仰), and receiving guests (о̄tai 応対). Both the zashiki and dei are earth-floored (doza 土座), though covered in mats, and have ‘slat’ ceilings (sunoko tenjо̄ すのこ天井) In addition there is a stable (maya まや), toilet (shо̄ben 小便), sink (nagashi ナガシ), shelves (todana 戸棚), storage for valuables (kazai shūnо̄ 家財収納), closet or robe (oshi-ire 押入), and Buddhist altar (卍). Yamagata Prefecture.

The development of this plan-form into more complex layouts, as shown in the plan diagrams below (though note that the doma is on the right, not on the left as in the plan above), begins with separating off the sleeping area (nema 寝間) into a proper room, giving a hiroma-gata (広間型) three-room (san-madori ３間取り) plan-form; the zashiki (座敷) also becomes timber-floored (yuka-za 床座). The plan then further develops into a four-room (yon-madori ４間取り) layout, either staggered (kui-chigai 食違い) or (as here) regular (seikei 整形), and a perimeter corridor is wrapped around the living areas of the house, giving it a more open character. The nema remains earth-floored, however, suggesting that the old customs of the region were not lightly tossed aside in the face of ‘modernisation’.

An example illustrating how an entirely earth-floored (doza 土座) two-room (ni-madori ２間取り) minka (left) with ‘formal room’ (zashiki 座敷, shortened here to za 座) and ‘living room’ (ima 居間, shortened here to i 居) areas evolves into a three-room (ni-madori ２間取り) plan-form by partitioning a bedroom (nema 寝間, shortened to ne 寝) off from the zashiki; this then becomes a regular (seikei 整形) four-room (yon-madori ４間取り) layout by partitioning off a dining (shokuji 食事, here shoku 食) room from the main living area. Yamagata Prefecture.

JAPANESE MINKA XXXVII - PLANNING 5: ONE-ROOM DWELLINGS

A one-room dwelling (hito-ma sumai (ひと間住まい) is defined as a minka with both an earth-floored utility area (doma 土間) and a single raised-floor room. In many cases, the boundary between the two areas is completely open (without sliding screens or other partitions); in these minka, there is a difference in floor level between doma and raised-floor (taka-yuka 高床) room, but otherwise the dwelling is in essence a single-space dwelling (tan-shitsu sumai 単室住まい) of the type discussed in the previous four posts, indicating that in these ‘edge cases’ there can be a degree of ambiguity as to what constitutes a single-space dwelling and what constitutes and one-room dwelling.

As small-scale dwellings or dwellings for the poor, one-room minka were found in large numbers all over Japan. The example shown below, though small, satisfies all the requirements of daily life for one or two inhabitants; it is, in other words, a ‘granny flat’ intended for use by the grandparent or parents of an extended farming family. Agricultural implements and the like are kept in the doma (here called a niwa にわ); this was also where agricultural work was done, and preserves and other food were stored. The area of the raised-floor room (へや) adjacent to the sill or threshold (kamachi 框) between the two areas was used for dining (shoku-ji 食事) and hand-work (te-shigoto 手仕事). The narrow nure-en (濡れ縁) or ‘verandah’ was the house’s interface with the outside world, used for interacting with the neighbourhood and as the entry for formal or official guests, who would be welcomed in front of the Buddhist altar (butsudan 仏壇). The place of rest is the rear corner in front of the alcove (toko 床). From this pattern of habitation, one can imagine the interior being partitioned into a three-room hiroma-gata plan-form.

Plan of a one-room dwelling (ひと間住まい) in Shiga Prefecture (滋賀県). Labelled are the eight-mat (hachi-jо̄８帖) ‘room’ (heya へや), the earth-floored utility area (niwa にわ), entry door (to と), and the Buddhist altar (卍).

Exterior image of the minka shown in the plan above (the building in the foreground). The lattice window in the gable wall opens on to the niwa (にわ). Though in Shiga hipped-and-gabled (iri-moya zukuri 入母屋造り) minka are predominant, smaller structures such as these ‘granny flats’ are typically gable-roofed.

The plan shown below is an example of a raised-floor dwelling in Tokushima Prefecture on the island of Shikoku, with only a small earth-floored fumi-komi (踏込み) or ‘step-in’ entry. At first glance it appears to be a two-room heiretsu (併列) or parallel ‘column’ type plan-form, where the two rooms are divided by transverse (perpendicular to the roof ridge) partitions. However, although the uchi (うち) area on the left is plank-floored, the activities it hosts are identical to those of any generic doma (土間) in any other minka plan-form, so this example can be thought of as falling into the range of minka considered to be of the ‘one-room’ type.

In classifying the plan-form of a minka, only the number and arrangement of raised-floor rooms are initially taken into account. This can sometimes lead to contradiction and confusion, as in the plan below, where the the small fumi-komi for entry and footwear removal, which in a modern dwelling would be called a genkan (玄関), can be misidentified as a vestigial doma; this then leads to the misinterpretation of the uchi as a room, when the raised-floor uchi is in fact the true doma in the functional sense. There are many other examples of this type of minka without any earth-floored areas at all, not even a fumi-komi, and entry is instead via the nure-en; these too should be considered one-room dwellings.

A one-room dwelling in Tokushima Prefecture (徳島県). Labelled are the plank-floored (ita-ma 板間) utility area (uchi うち) with ‘water work’ (mizu-shigoto 水仕事) area, food storage (shokuryou chozou 食糧貯蔵) area, oven/stove (kudo くど), food preparation (tabemono chousei 食物調整) area, work area (sagyou-ba 作業場), utility entry (katte-guchi かって口), and earth-floored ‘step-in’ (fumi-komi 踏込み) for family entrance (kajin no deiri-guchi 家人の出入口); the ‘living room’ (omote おもて) contains an ‘event’ (gyou-ji 行事) area, ‘relaxation’ (yururi ゆるり) area, dining (shoku-ji 食事) family (danran 団らん) and guest (sekkyaku 接客) area, sleeping (shuushin 就寝) area, Separating the uchi and omote is a board screen (ita-kakoi 板囲い); there are no (nashi なし) operable paritions (tategu 建具).

To block noise and dust from work activities undertaken in the uchi, there is a board (ita 板) screen (kakoi 囲い) between it and the omote (おもて), but otherwise there are no partitions. The jо̄-ya bashira (上屋柱) posts stand within the room; the perimeter ge-ya (下屋) area between these posts and the external walls might house a Buddhist altar (butsudan 仏壇), closet (oshi-ire 押入) or alcove (tokonoma 床の間), but differentiation or allocation of this space towards storage, sleeping, or other functions is generally only loose or implied. This plan-form is common in the mountainous regions of Shikoku.

Exterior of a minka in the Iya (祖谷) region of Shikoku. Minka plan-forms in this area are ‘column’ type, with toilet and bath typically protruding out from the centre of the south facade. In the background can be seen the inkyo-ke or ‘granny flat’ which also has a column plan-form. Perhaps because of the tight, mountainous sites, the custom in this area when extra room is required is to establish a new, separate building, rather than add to the main house.

Two minka plans from the Gojima region (五島地方) of Kyūshū.

The upper plan shows a one-room dwelling from which the bedroom has been separated off. Labelled are the stable (umaya うまや) for keeping livestock (kachiku shi-iku 家畜飼育); the doma (どま) with areas for food storage (shokuryо̄ chozо̄ 食糧貯蔵), food preparation (tabemono chо̄sei 食べ物調整), feed preparation (shiryо̄ chо̄sei 飼料調整), agricultural work (nо̄-sagyо̄ 濃作業), entrance (iriguchi 入口); the raised board-floor (itama 板間) agariguchi (あがりぐち) with shelving (todana 戸棚), dining and ‘family’ area shokuji danran 食事団らん), family sleeping area (kazoku shūshin 家族就寝), Buddhist altar (butsudan 仏壇) indicated by swastika (manji 卍), areas for receiving (о̄tai 応対) and entertaining guests (sekkyaku 接客), and alcove (toko とこ); and bedroom (nando なんど) for sleeping (shin 寝).

Partitioning of the interior of the upper plan, according to the organisation of activities within it, would result in a staggered (kui-chigai 食違い) four-room (yon-madori ４間取り) plan-form similar to that shown in the plan below. Labelled are the stable (umaya うまや), doma (どま) with bath (furo フロ), sink (hashiri ハシリ), ‘living room’ (adanoma あだのま) with fire (ro ろ), front bedroom (naisho なしょ) with shelving (todana 戸棚), Buddhist altar (butsudan) indicated by swastika (manji 卍), rear bedroom (nando なんど), and formal room (zashiki ざしき).

JAPANESE MINKA XXXVI - PLANNING 4: SINGLE-SPACE DWELLINGS 4

In addition to the earth-floored (doza 土座) single-space dwellings (tanshitsu-sumai 単室住まい) discussed in the last few posts, there are also single-space dwellings of the raised-floor type (taka-yuka shiki 高床式). The existence of such dwellings may seem somewhat contradictory, since the ability to construct a raised floor might also imply the technical and economic capacity to construct interior walls. But in tropical or subtropical climates, an interior unobstructed by partitions has obvious benefits for cross-ventilation, able as it is to take advantage of even the slightest breeze, and warm daytime air can be more quickly and effectively purged by cool (or at least cooler) evening air.

The minka of the Nansei Islands (Nansei Shotо̄ 南西諸島) are a good example of the type. The plan below is of a minka on Amami-О̄shima (奄美大島). The hipped-roof (yose-mune 寄棟) main building (omo-ya 主屋, or in the island dialect uiyaa ういやー) and gable-roofed (kiri-zuma 切妻) ‘cookhouse’ (kamaya 釜屋, dialect tо̄gura とうぐら) almost touch at their eaves, with a single large gutter (toi 樋) running between them, effectively forming a box gutter. The main building is single-space, with a small ‘step-in’ (fumi-komi 踏込み) entrance doma (土間) and half-mat sized closet (oshi-iri 押入) contained within a lean-to structure (sashi-kake hisashi 差掛け庇) appended to it. The interior posts might appear to be ‘in the way', but if we look at the plan from the perspective of the plan-form archetypes, it can be interpreted as consisting of a two-mat ‘front room’ (omote 表; in the island dialect umutei うむてい) and two-mat ‘bedroom’ (nema 寝間; dialect neisho ねいしょ) wrapped in a three shaku (尺; one shaku is 30.3cm, three shaku is the width of a tatami mat) wide perimeter (shūi 周囲) ‘corridor’ (shūen 周縁; dialect shuen しゅえん), though in actuality the whole of this space is laid with tatami mats and used as a single room.

Plan of a single-space minka on the Amami-О̄shima. Note the hipped-roof (yose-mune 寄棟) main building (uiyaa ういやー or omoya 母屋), the separate (bettо̄ 別棟) gable-roofed (kiri-zuma 切妻) ‘cookhouse’ (kamaya 釜屋 or tо̄gura とうぐら), and the eaves gutter (toi 樋) joining the two, shown as two dashed lines. Labelled also are the ‘front room’ (omote おもて) used for receiving guests (sekkyaku 接客) and as a living space (ima 居間) and the rearward sleeping area (neisho ねいしょ or shinjo 寝所), both with tatami (タタミ) floors; the lean-to ‘step-in’ (fumi-komi 踏込み) entry doma and closet (iri 入); the cooking (suiji 炊事) and dining (shokuji 食事) space with stove (kamado カマド); a shelf (tana タナ) and areas for food (shokuryо̄ 食糧) storage (chozо̄ 貯蔵) and preparation (chо̄sei 調整) on the plank-floored perimeter ‘corridor’ area; and the location of sliding ‘doors’ (to と).

The umutei is used as a living area, to receive guests, and as a sleeping area for the family; the rearward neisho is the sleeping area for the husband and wife. The perimeter shuen around the naisho serves as a space for storing belongings, in the absence of a dedicated storage room (nando 納戸). The separate single-bay, gable-roofed tо̄gura, together with the roofed two-mat area 樋の間 (toi-no-ma, lit. ‘gutter space’) between the two buildings and under the ‘box gutter’, is the cooking (suiji 炊事) and dining (shokuji 食事) area, with the plank-floored perimeter area surrounding this space used for food storage (shokuryо̄ chozо̄ 食糧貯蔵) and preparation (chо̄sei 調整). ‘Water work’ (mizu-shigoto 水仕事) such as laundry, the bathing area (furo-ba 風呂場), and other functions were all outside, or at least not in the two main buildings. The house is small but sufficient and fulfils all the functions required of a house. A hypothetical partitioning of this plan would result in a jūretsu-shiki (縦列式) or ‘row-type’ plan-form, a subtype of the yoko-bunwari plan-form.

Photograph of the minka in the plan above, showing the lean-to entry doma and the cookhouse (tо̄gura) to the rear behind the main building (uiyaa).

The second example, shown below, is from Miyako Island (Miyako-jima 宮古島). This house consists of a two-bay square (roughly 30m2), plank-floored living area with a central post (naka-bashira 中柱) and a hipped roof, and to its west a thatched single-bay kamaya. Again, the post may seem a nuisance, but it suggests a functional division of the space into implied ‘rooms’, so that the post is not so much at the centre of a single room as it is at the intersection or boundary between multiple ‘functional zones’: the southern part is used for receiving guests and as a living area; the area adjacent to the kamaya is used for dining; the north-east corner is for sleeping, and the Buddhist altar (butsudan 仏壇) occupies the north-west. The space has a clear ‘front’ (omote 表) or ‘public’ area south of the post, and a ‘rear’ (ura 浦) or ‘inner’ area north of the post. Partitioning of the interior would result in a four-room cruciform plan, with the post at the centre of the cross in the plane of the partitions. This plan-form is called in Japanese ta-no-ji-gata (田の字型, lit. ‘rice field character form’) for its resemblance to the character for rice field (ta 田).

A single-space minka on Miyako Island. Labelled are the earth-floored cooking and utility area called the kamaya (かまや) with stoves to the north and water well, marked 水 (mizu, water), to the south; the Buddhist altar, marked 仏 (butsu or hotoke, Buddha), central post (naka-bashira 中柱), and hypothetical partition locations (maji-kiri sо̄tei-sen 間仕切り想定線) shown with dot-dash lines. The living area is plank-floored (ita-shiki 板敷).

JAPANESE MINKA XXXV - PLANNING 3: SINGLE-SPACE DWELLINGS ３

The plan below is of a single-space minka in the middle reaches of the Shinano River (信濃川) in Niigata Prefecture. Built some time in the mid 19th century, it was the home of a lower-class farming family; apparently many such minka were once found in the area.

A single-space (tanshitsu-sumai 単室住まい) minka with separate (bunri 分離) sleeping area (nema ねま). The whole interior is earth-floored (doza 土座). Labelled are the entrance (iri-guchi 入口), agricultural work (nо̄-sagyо̄ 農作業), handwork (te-shigoto 手仕事), fire pit (irori いろり), food preparation (tabemono-chо̄sei 食物調整), food storage (shokuryо̄-chozо̄ 食糧貯蔵) dining (shoku-ji 食事), family (danran 団らん), receiving guests (sekkyaku 接客), ‘events’ (gyо̄ji 行事), partitioned enclosure (kakoi かこい) for the wife’s ‘retiring’ area (shufu-shūshin), and the family retiring area (kazoku-shūshin 家族就寝). The vertical dot-dash lines dividing the interior indicate hypothetical partition locations that would make this single space a three-room hiroma-gata (広間型) type interior.

The whole interior is earth-floored (doza 土座), with only the wife’s sleeping area partitioned off. The interior is close, with few windows; there are no wardrobes (oshi-iri 押入), alcoves (tokonoma 床の間) or the like, and the structural members are adze-finished. Though the building dates to the Tokugawa Shо̄gunate, it was inhabited until at least the 1950s; it might surprise some to learn that there were still ‘economically disadvantaged’ people living in such apparently primitive conditions and straitened circumstances well into the era of Japan’s ‘economic miracle’. But perhaps it was comfortable, familiar, and enough for their needs.

With its utility area (doma 土間) adjacent to the entrance, living area (hiroma 広間) with fire place (irori いろり), the more formal zashiki (座敷) or ‘public’ functions conducted in the southern part of the space, and sleeping ‘room’ (nema 寝間) to the north, a hypothetical partitioning of this minka would result in a three-room hiroma-gata (広間型) type.

JAPANESE MINKA XXXIV - PLANNING 2: SINGLE-SPACE DWELLINGS 2

There is a transitional or intermediate minka plan-form between the completely unpartitioned single-space dwelling, exemplified by the Ainu chise, and dwellings that are partitioned with full-height, fixed interior walls. In this intermediate form, low, moveable partitions were used to mark out corners and perimeter areas of the interior for activities such as sleeping, eating, receiving guests, and cooking.

An example of this type of interior, shown below, can (or could) be found in the foothills of Mt Hakusan (Hakusan-roku 白山麓) in Ishikawa Prefecture. This A-frame construction (mata-date 股建て) farmer’s hut (dezukuri-koya 出作り小屋) has, like the chise, a single-space interior and an earthen-floored entry/utility space (doma 土間) or ‘ante-room’ (zenshitsu-doma 前室土間, lit. ‘front room doma’). Though this particular example is large for its type, it nevertheless demonstrates that these single-space dezukuri-koya dwellings differ little from chise in the way the various domestic activities are arranged within their open-plan interiors.

Floor plan of a reed thatch-walled (kaya-kabe 茅壁) A-frame construction (mata-tate-zukuri 股建て造り) single-space farmer’s ‘hut’ in the Mt Hakusan foothills. To the east (bottom) is the earth-floored ante-room (zenshitsu-doma 前室土間) containing the entry (iriguchi 入口) a basin (mizu-bune 水舟) fed by a bamboo pipe (かけひ), and a toilet (benjo 便所). This doma area was used for food storage (shokubutsu-chozо̄ 植物貯蔵), tool storage (dо̄gu-okiba 道具置場) and as a place of work (sagyо̄ba 作業場). Beyond the doma is the earth-floored (doza 土座) eating (shokuji 食事食事) and ‘family’ (danran 団らん) area, spread with mats (mushiro-shiki 莚敷). This area contains the fire pit (irori 地炉) around which the family positions are marked: husband (shujin 主人), wife (shufu 主婦), children (ko 子), guests (kyaku 客). There are two windows (mado まど) in the south wall. Also labelled are shelves (todanaとだな and nabedana 鍋棚), mortar (usu うす), and bundled straw (maki-wara 薪藁). At the rear of the interior is the ground joist (korobashi-neda 転ばし根太) and plank floor (ita-yuka 板床) family sleeping area (kazoku-shinjo 家族寝所), also used for food drying (shokubutsu kansо̄ 植物乾燥) and storage (iiiri? 飯入). In the back (west) wall is the Buddhist alcove (butsuma 仏間). There is also a ladder (hashigo はしご) up into the roof space (yane-ura 屋根裏). On the left (north) wall can be seen the sleeping area (shinjo 寝所) for the wife (shufu 主婦) and infants (yо̄ji 幼児), partitioned off with a 60cm high ‘fence’ (kakoi 囲い).

The medieval farmhouse minka of the remoter areas of the Tо̄hoku and Hokuriku regions of northern Japan are also said to have had some resemblance to chise in their interior layouts. Northern Japan (Hokkaidо̄ and northern Honshū) were, until historical times, occupied not by the Japanese but by the Jо̄mon-descended Ezo or Emishi (both written 蝦夷) people. The Emishi were gradually either absorbed or pushed further and further north by the Yayoi (弥生) agriculturalists who came to Honshū from the Korean peninsular from 300 BC, until by modern times only the Ainu of Hokkaidо̄ remained. The Ainu are generally thought to have descended, like the Emishi, from tribes of the Jōmon (縄文) people, and so the two groups are closely related, though not necessarily identical.

The similarities between Ainu (and presumably Emishi) chise and Japanese dezukuri-koya raise the question of who influenced who. Given that there was close contact and admixture between Yayoi-descended and Jо̄mon-descended groups over many centuries, the answer is probably complex and bi-directional. There was probably also a degree of convergent evolution between the respective groups’ dwellings, with the two groups existing under similar material, environmental (climactic) and even cultural conditions.

The ‘living’ part of the dezukuri-koya interior adjacent to the entrance is a ‘ground-living’ (doza-sumai 土座住まい) area, with the earth floor at ground level (hira-chi jūkyo平地住居) rather than sunken as was the case in more ancient dwellings. Further back is a ground joist (korobashi-neda 転ばし根太) and plank (ita 板) floored family sleeping area; at the very back is a recessed alcove for the Buddhist altar (butsuma 仏間).

Adjacent to the north wall is a kind of ‘pen’ area, formed with a 60cm high partition similar to makura-byо̄bu (枕屏風), the low screens still occasionally used today to give some privacy and draft protection to sleepers. The enclosure is roughly three tatami mats in area and is the sleeping place for a nursing mother and her infants. This arrangement suggests that in the development of the single-space dwelling into a partitioned interior, the first area to be separated off from the rest may have been the wife’s sleeping area. A hypothetical formal partitioning along these lines would result in a plan-form that could be regarded as a ‘front doma’ (mae-doma 前土間) subtype of the three room hiroma-gata (広間型) plan-form, common in the Hokuriku region.

A gabled, gable-entry, thatched A-frame farmer’s hut in Yamagata Prefecture, similar to the one shown in the floor plan above, but smaller and without an ante-room. The A-frame is somewhat bowed, giving the structure a ‘kamaboko (浦鉾, fish cake)’ form (kata 型). The entrance is simply closed off with a mat. The hut is roughly 10 tatami in area, about 30m2. It is located in remote mountain fields, so would have only been occupied in summer.

The interior of another farmer’s hut in the foothills of Mt Hakusan, Ishikawa Prefecture (not the same hut as those above). To the rear of the fire pit is the yokoza (横座), the seating place for the husband; beyond that is the sleeping area with various items related to this activity. At the right edge of the fire pit is the wife’s seating area; beside this is an area for firewood, food and other cooking-related items. The photograph is taken from the entrance.

JAPANESE MINKA XXXIII - PLANNING 1: SINGLE-SPACE DWELLINGS 1

After a long detour into framing and other structural aspects of minka, I would like to return to the subject of minka planning and layouts, but this time in more detail, with a focus on the development of minka from primitive single-space dwellings into the sophisticated and complex plan forms that had emerged by the 19th century, each with its own regional subtypes.

‘Single-space dwelling’ refers here to a dwelling whose interior consists of a single undifferentiated space; it may be either entirely raised-floor or entirely earthen-floored. These dwellings are to be distinguished from dwellings that contain both a raised-floor area (room) and an attached earthen-floored doma utility area, which we will call ‘single-room dwellings’, to be covered in later posts.

It is thought that the earliest Japanese dwellings, whether raised or earthen floored, were all single-space dwellings, without fixed internal walls. But even if a dwelling’s interior is spatially unified, there is naturally an order to the way the space is occupied and used: livestock and agricultural implements are kept near the entrance, the innermost recesses are spread with straw and used as sleeping places, and so on. The solidification of these relatively fluid modes of living eventually led to the appearance of interior partitions, which over centuries of development brought us to the partitioning of space seen today.

A good example of fairly large-scale single-space dwellings that survived in Japan until relatively recently are the chise* (チセ) of the Ainu people of Hokkaidо̄.

An old photograph of a chise.

In the chise, each interior corner and other areas are functionally and nominally distinguished, just as the rooms of a modern house are. The corners spaces of the chise are: the south-west harukisoshikeu (ハルキソシケウ), the south-east sо̄keshi (ソーケシ), the north-east sо̄pa (ソーパ), and the north-west shisoshikeu (シソシケウ). Each of these areas was used for a different purpose.

The harukisoshikeu, the south-west corner of the chise interior near the entrance, is the ‘kitchen’ area, or in Japanese daidokoro (台所). The area immediately east of the harukisoshikeu, adjacent to the central section of the south wall, is the sleeping area (shinjo 寝所) for family members other than the husband and wife.

The south-east corner, the sо̄keshi, was normally kept vacant, as it was the sleeping area for staying guests.

The east wall was a sacred area, used for religious ceremonies and observances, and contains a window called kamuy-buyara (カムイブヤラ) or rorun-buyara (ロルンブヤラ), in Japanese kami-mado (神窓, lit. ‘spirit window’). The Ainu word for spirit is kamuy (カムイ), which may be the etymological origin of the Japanese kami, but the two terms differ somewhat in sense. The kamuy-buyara was used for passing offerings through; looking through it was not permitted.

The north-east corner, the sо̄pa, corresponds to the ki-mon (鬼門, lit. ‘demon gate’) direction in Onmyōdō (陰陽道), the Japanese esoteric cosmology based on Chinese Wuxing (the five elements or agents) and Yin Yang. In these systems, ki-mon (north-east) is a negative and unfavourable direction by which demons and ghosts are believed to enter and exit. Perhaps partly as a defense against these evil spirits, the walls of the sо̄pa are lined with religious objects, and it is not used as a living or sleeping area.

The central north section of the chise is the sleeping place of the husband, and the area adjacent to the north wall is where his belongings are kept. Likewise, the north-west corner or shisoshikeu is where the wife sleeps and keeps her belongings. The space between the husband and wife’s storage areas was used to hang the traditional Ainu atsushi (アツシ), the robes made with the inner bark of the elm tree.

Floor plan of a chise. Labelled are:

The ante-room (semu セム) with its entrance (semapa セマパ)

The inner entry area (ape アぺ), fire area (apeoi アぺオイ), and around it the husband and wife’s area (shiso シソ) , guest area (rorunso ロルンソ) , family area (harukiso ハルキソ) , and lower sitting position (usara ウサラ, perhaps for casual ‘dropover’ visitors or those of lower status)

The south-west corner (harukisoshikeu ハルキソシケウ) with kitchen (daidokoro 台所) area and kitchen window (pon-buyara ポンブヤラ)

The family sleeping area (kazoku no shinjo 家族の寝所)

The south-east corner (sо̄keshi ソーケシ), the guest area, and guest window (itsumun-buyara イツムンブヤラ)

The ‘spirit window’ (kami-mado 神窓 or kamuy-buyara カムイブヤラ)

The north-east corner (sо̄pa ソーパ) with religious or ceremonial items (saigu 祭具)

Sleeping area (shinjo 寝所) for the husband (shujin 主人) and storage area for his items (dо̄gu 道具)

Sleeping area (shinjo 寝所) for the wife (shufu 主婦) and storage area for her items (dо̄gu 道具)

Area for hanging clothes (irui-kake 衣類掛け)

Floor plan of a chise by Isabella Bird, 1878

Reconstructed chise in a museum with the south wall removed to reveal the interior.

Interior of an Ainu chise looking from the harukiso (the south-west position at the fire pit) to the sо̄pa (north-east corner) with its array of religious or ceremonial items. The walls are lined with toma (トマ) mats woven from kina (キナ) (bullrush or cattail, in Japanese kama or kaba 蒲). The wall beams (keta 桁) are hung with woven ropes known as chisesamupe (チセサムぺ). In the foreground, standing in the corner of the fire pit, is an inunpesaoshipe (イヌンペサオシぺ), an artificial ‘flower’ made from wood shavings (in Japanese kezuri-bana 削り花, lit. ‘shaved flower’) analogous to the zig-zag paper nusa (幣) used in Japanese Shintо̄ ceremonies.

Interior of a chise showing fire pit with chisesamupe (チセサムぺ) and inunpesaoshipe (イヌンペサオシぺ), and toma (トマ) mats lining the walls.

Chise were usually constructed on an east-west long axis, facing south, and were typically four bays long and three bays wide. Buildings larger than this were called porochise (ポロチセ), and smaller ones ponchise (ポンチセ). An ‘ante-room’ called the semu (セム) projected out from the west side of the main structure; the entrance to the dwelling was in the south wall of the semu. In early chise there was no semu; instead, entry was directly into the main dwelling from the west, through an entrance known as the ape (アぺ), an arrangement that would have been less than ideal in the cold winters of the north. In addition to serving as an effective windbreak and snowbreak, the semu was also used for the storage of agricultural tools, the preparation and storage of food, the storage of food preparation items such as mortars and pestles, and as a place for work on rainy days.

Modern reconstruction of a chise. This is the south facade, showing the entry opening in the semu and two small windows in the southern wall.

The ‘living’ floor of the chise consists of woven rush mats (goza, 茣蓙) spread on planks and joists, specifically korobashi-neda (転ばし根太, lit. ‘fallen joists’), which are joists placed directly on the ground without stumps. Older chise interiors were entirely ‘ground living’ (doza-sumai 土座住まい) dwellings, without joist floors, though mats or straw would have been spread directly on the ground in most of the interior.

As the fireplace was relatively centrally located in the chise, it can be surmised that a hypothetical partitioning of the space would result in the Japanese minka plan-form known as hiroma-gata (広間型).

* Note that all Ainu words here are transliterations from the Japanese katakana renderings, which are not perfectly faithful to the native Ainu pronunciation.

VERNACULAR PICTURES 19

A beautifully detailed minka facade with curved posts on pad stones, bark cladding, board-and-batten cladding, latticed openings, rope-fixed purlins and rafters, and thatched roofs.

JAPANESE MINKA XXXII - ROOF FRAMING 10: NOBORI-BARI FRAMING

When floors are inserted into the roof space of minka so that the space can be utilised, whether for sericulture (as in the gasshо̄-zukuri framed minka discussed in previous posts) or some other purpose, the low, triangular edges of the space formed, where the roof plane meets the floor, are impractical for anything other than storage of relatively small items. To address this inefficiency, the transverse roof beams (koya-bari 小屋梁) can be set into the posts at a level significantly lower than the longitudinal wall beams (keta 桁), to give the attic storey walls; additionally, obstructive roof posts (tsuka 束) are omitted wherever possible, and may be entirely absent. These two characteristics are what define nobori-bari-gumi (登り梁組, lit. ‘rising beam framing’), which is the subject of this week’s post, the final entry in this ten-part series on minka roof framing methods.

In nobori-bari (登り梁) framing, the transverse roof beams are tenoned into the faces of the posts, while the nobori-bari sit on the heads of the posts, in an ori-oki (折置) configuration, in which the mortised beam ends are dropped onto vertical tenons on the post heads and the wall plates are lapped over the beams.

Nobori-bari framing in a board/plank-roofed minka in the Tо̄hoku region. This roof space was used for sericulture and other purposes.

Nobori-bari are functionally similar to the principal rafters (sasu 叉首) of sasu-gumi (叉首組) framing, but are true beams, being far stouter and usually made from irregularly shaped pine logs, minimally worked. They support the purlins (moya 母屋) on which the common rafters (taruki 棰 or 垂木) ride. At the apex, the nobori-bari may bear on a large longitudinal beam (ji-mune 地棟) which is supported by a central roof post (shin-zuka 真束) or muna-mochi-bashira 棟持柱). Again, like the sasu in sasu-gumi construction, the nobori-bari pairs are often crossed (with a tenoned, through-mortised and pegged joint) at the apex, forming a crotch in which the ridgepole (muna-gi 棟木) is carried. The moya may sit directly on the nobori-bari, or on very short posts or stumps (tsuka 束) to make up for height differences in the irregularly-shaped beams.

One interesting variation in nobori-bari framing is the use of brackets or ‘shelf’ timbers (makura-gi 枕木, lit. ‘pillow timber’) at the eaves. The lower end of the nobori-bari sits in the corner formed between the makura-gi and the post. The exterior part of the makura-gi may serve double duty as an ude-gi (腕木, lit. ‘arm timber’) to support the external ‘verandah’ beam (keta 桁); ideally, the loads acting at each end of the makura-gi on either side of the post balance each other out.

Magnificent nobori-bari in the tsushi-nikai (厨子二階, an upper ‘half floor’ with low walls/ceiling and little headroom) of a tile-roofed merchant’s house (shou-ka 商家, a combined house/shop where the merchant both lived and did business) in Kurashiki City (倉敷市). Note the makura-gi (枕木) which serve also as the exterior eaves-supporting ude-gi (腕木); note also that the purlins (moya 母屋) bear directly on the nobori-bari at the irregularly-shaped beams’ ‘peaks’, and on short ‘adjustment’ stumps (tsuka 束) at the beams’ ‘valleys’.

A new house showing the (ude-gi 腕木) supporting the verandah beam (keta 桁) which in turn supports the rafters (taruki 垂木).

Examples of nobori-bari framing in the Kantо̄ region.

JAPANESE MINKA XXXI - ROOF FRAMING 9: WAGOYA FRAMING

The defining feature of wa-goya-gumi (和小屋組, lit. ‘Japanese roof framing’) construction, in contrast to the other forms of roof framing (koya-gumi 小屋組) we have considered to this point, are the rows of roof posts (koya-tsuka 小屋束) erected on top of the transverse roof beams (koya-bari 小屋梁). These roof posts transfer the dead load of the roof indirectly to the ground floor posts (hashira 柱) via the beams. In most wa-goya roof framing, the rows of roof posts support underpurlins (moya 母屋) which support the common rafters (taruki 棰 or 垂木); wa-goya roofs do not typically have principal rafters (sasu 叉首), but as we shall see there are examples which do.

Wa-goya roof framing is still commonly used in new-build houses in Japan today, in a somewhat rationalised form, with metal hardware and diagonal bracing to improve performance under lateral load from wind and earthquake, and squared, straight roof beams.

Modern wa-goya-gumi (和小屋組) roof framing, showing posts (hashira 柱), wall beams (noki-geta 軒桁), transverse roof beams (koya-bari 小屋梁), corner bracing (hi-uchi-bari 火打梁), roof posts( koya-tsuka 小屋束), penetrating ties (koya-nuki 小屋貫), diagonal bracing (koya-sujikai 小屋筋交), underpurlins (moya 母屋), ridge beam (munagi 棟木), and rafters (taruki 垂木). Only one half of the roof is shown for clarity.

In most traditional minka, the roof beams are irregular, curved pine logs (matsu-maruta 松丸太); in order to minimise deflection, these beams are oriented so that their ‘backs’ face upwards, forming a natural arch, meaning that the roof posts in any particular longitudinal row of posts are not of uniform length. The posts are connected and restrained from leaning out of plumb in both longitudinal and transverse directions by penetrating roof ties (koya-nuki 小屋貫); the upper and lower faces of these ties are typically in contact with one another within the roof posts (i.e. their mortises are connected); however in older minka the transverse and longitudinal ties may be widely vertically separated.

If the width of the building is large and cannot be spanned by a single transverse beam, it is divided into two or three spans by intermediate posts, usually located in the plane of the floor plan partitions where they won’t be in the way of the inhabitants. Longitudinal (parallel to the ridge) beams, called shiki-bari (敷梁) or nakabiki-bari (中引梁), support two transverse beams called nage-kake-bari (投掛梁) that run out to the external walls on either side. The longitudinal beams might be supported directly on the internal posts, or in the middle of a short, elevated transverse beam called a tenbin-bari (天秤梁).

Wide-span buildings can give rise to another problem: the roof posts may be too long to be effectively stabilised, even with penetrating ties. In this case, one solution is to add one or two tiers of roof beams above the main roof beams, arranging them so that roof loads are distributed as evenly as possible.

The following five section diagrams illustrate how wa-goya framing developed to accommodate greater spans by the use of tiered beams, longitudinal beams, and internal ground floor posts:

1. A simple short-span wa-goya roof with only three rows of roof posts (koya-tsuka 小屋束) on the transverse beams (koya-bari 小屋梁), and underpurlins and a ridgepole set on the roof posts to carry the common rafters (taruki 棰).

2. A wider building, but still spannable by a single koya-bari, and five rows of koya-tsuka; the central three rows of longer koya-tsuka are stabilised by penetrating ties (koya-nuki 小屋貫) in both directions.

3. The wide span is divided into two with a row of internal ground floor posts (hashira 柱), upon which is set a longitudinal beam (naka-biki-bari 中引梁); the naka-biki-bari supports two transverse beams called nage-kake-bari (投掛梁). There are eight rows of koya-tsuka, an upper transverse beam (ni-ju-bari 二重梁), and above that shorter connecting beams (tsunagi-bari つなぎ梁) which stabilise the structure in place of penetrating ties (nuki 貫).

4. The building is divided into three spans, with two rows of internal ground floor posts. The two outer transverse beams (tsunagi-bari 繋梁) act to tie the posts together but do not bear any of the roof load. The central, elevated ‘balance beam’ (tenbin-bari 天秤梁) carries a massive central longitudinal beam, which in turn supports two transverse ‘rising beams’ (nobori-bari 登り梁); it is these nobori-bari which bear the roof load via nine rows of koya-tsuka.

5. Again there are three spans, but this building employs a very long transverse beam that runs the full width of the building and forms three continuous spans over the two internal ground floor posts; on this beam is carried a longitudinal beam (naka-biki-bari 中引梁), which in turn carries two nage-kake-bari (投掛梁) transverse beams. There are two additional tiers of transverse beams above this: the ni-ju-bari (二重梁) and san-ju-bari (三重梁). There are eleven rows of koya-tsuka, although note that some terminate at the san-ju-bari and some at the ni-ju-bari, without directly transferring their roof loads down to the nage-kake-bari.

Wa-goya roof framing is typically associated with tiled roofs, but thatched examples can also be found in areas with heavy snowfall and on particularly large roofs.

If the sasu-gumi (叉首組) framing method covered in the last few posts is employed in large-span minka, there arises the need to support the long principal rafters (sasu 叉首) at intermediate points to prevent them sagging. This need led to the development of sasu-gumi into the more complex torii-gumi (鳥居組) method, also discussed previously, in which two roof posts flanking the central odachi post support underpurlins (moya 母屋) that in turn support the sasu. This system might be regarded either as a precursor form of wa-goya construction, or perhaps a hybrid of the two systems. Such combination roofs are commonly found from the Chūbu (中部) region northwards, in the Tо̄hoku (東北) region, and elsewhere.

A wa-goya roof that incorporates principal rafters (sasu) in Akita Prefecture in northern Japan, an area of high snowfall.

The Sasaki house in Nagano Prefecture, a region of high snowfall. The roof framing incorporates wa-goya-gumi elements (roof posts, upper roof beams, penetrating ties) into a sasu-gumi roof structure.

Section diagram of the Sasaki house. The curves in the long continuous transverse roof beam (koya-bari 小屋梁) are cleverly oriented to ‘snake’ around the two outer longitudinal beams (uke-bari 受梁), which support it, and the central longitudinal beam (ji-mune 地棟), which it supports. Three rows of roof posts (koya-tsuka 小屋束) bear on these beams and are connected with penetrating ties (koya-nuki 小屋貫) in both directions. The uppermost central roof post is termed the shin-tsuka (真束). Interestingly, the roof run is divided into two rows of half-length sasu: the upper (sasu 叉首) and lower (kiri-sasu 切り叉首, lit. ‘cut sasu’).

A similar structure to the Sasaki house, but without an upper central crown post (shin-tsuka) The principal rafters (sasu 叉首) and upper transverse beams (tsunagi-bari 繋梁) form an A-frame structure in the upper half of the roof space; in the lower half, three rows of roof posts (koya-tsuka 小屋束) transfer loads to the roof beams below.

A roof in Tochigi Prefecture showing central roof post (shin-tsuka 真束) and two flanking roof posts (waki-tsuka 脇束) to support the principal rafters (sasu 叉首).

A partly disassembled minka in Kanagawa Prefecture with roof framing that utilises both crown posts (odachi おだち) and principal rafters (sasu 叉首). Note that the sasu are not full-length from ridge to eaves; rather the run is divided into upper sasu (simply called sasu) and shorter, more slender lower sasu (kiri-sasu 切り叉首).

The magnificent thatched wa-goya roof of the Egawa House in Shizuoka Prefecture. A forest of roof posts, thicker and longer than the ground floor posts in the average minka, are connected with equally numerous penetrating ties, the whole forming a dense three-dimensional lattice.

JAPANESE MINKA XXX - ROOF FRAMING 8: ODACHI FRAMING 2

Many examples of odachi-gumi (おだち組) construction can or could be found in the Tanba (丹波) and Hokusetsu (丹波) regions of western Honshū, corresponding to parts of the modern Prefectures of Kyо̄to (京都), Hyо̄go (兵庫) and О̄saka (大阪).　　

Photo of odachi-gumi roof framing in the Tanba region, Kyо̄to Prefecture. Labelled are the crown post (odachi おだち) supporting the ridgepole (munagi 棟木), and thick common rafters (taruki たるき) running from ridge to eaves. There are no principal rafters (sasu 叉首).

The tail ends of the common rafters visible are at the eaves of this odachi-gumi roof (the same as in the photo above).

In the Hirai (平井) farmhouse in Kо̄be City (神戸市), a row of odachi (which at 180mm square are much larger than the ground floor posts below) are set along a 300mm square longitudinal roof beam (naka-oki 中置).

A row of stout odachi in the roof space of the Hirai house, Kо̄be City. The odachi are connected with penetrating ties (nuki 貫). Note the votive tablets or talismans fixed to the odachi to protect the house.

To accommodate the sericulture that was practised in the hinterlands of Tanba, the large roof space is divided up into multiple floors, and, as illustrated in the section below, the long common rafters (usually taruki 垂木 or 棰, but here called hiso ひそ) that run from the ridge to the wall plates are supported at intermediate points by underpurlins (usually moya 母屋, but here hiso-motase ひそもたせ), which are in turn supported by transverse roof beams; each of these beams is supported by a pair of posts that flank the central odachi. This form of construction is known as torii-gumi, for its resemblance to the Shintо̄ torii gates, whose upper ‘beam’ cantilevers out past its two support posts.

Photo of the roof framing of the Hori house in Kyо̄to Prefecture, taken from the lower attic floor. Visible are two central odachi posts and one of the flanking torii posts on the left.

A section of the Hori house. The central odachi (おだち) is flanked by torii (とりい) posts, making this torii-gumi construction.

Because the odachi in these steeply pitched roofs are long (around five metres or more), they must be braced against buckling or toppling, which is achieved by the addition of two pairs of intermediate oi-sasu (追叉首), which together form a quasi-triangulated structure.

A photo taken from the upper attic floor of an odachi-gumi minka in Tanba. Two pairs of oi-sasu are visible, bracing the long gable-end odachi. Note the adzed finish on the odachi.

The minka in the Kuchi-Tanba (口丹波) region (central Kyо̄to Prefecture) are generally small ‘mountain houses’, but there are many odachi-gumi structures in the area, and simple torii-gumi structures can also be found, as in the Hiraoka house, whose section is shown below.

Hiraoka House in Kuchi-Tanba, Kyо̄to Prefecture. A simple example of torii-gumi (鳥居組) roof framing. Labelled are the crown post (odachi おだち), the torii (鳥居) posts and beams, underpurlins (hiso-motase ひそもたせ) held in the ‘corners’ of the torii, and common rafters (hiso ひそ).

There is also a kind of ‘hybrid’ form of construction where both crown posts (odachi おだち) and principal rafters (sasu 叉首) are present. In the Kawarabatake House in Kyо̄to Prefecture, the central odachi is set plumb, but the two end odachi are slanted outwards towards the gables, and each is crossed with a pair of oi-sasu (追い叉首) running from up from the gable-end wall beams to cross at the ridge to support the ridgepole. These various diagonal members form quasi-triangulated structures which effectively brace the roof longitudinally. Between the points where the oi-sasu meet at the apex are two more pairs of principal rafters, here called hira-sasu (平叉首) because they run down to the long sides of the structure; these sasu also cross at the ridge and triangulate and brace the roof in the transverse direction. This use of odachi and sasu in combination can be found in many regions, and represents an intermediate form of construction in the transition from odachi-gumi to sasu-gumi construction.

Kawarabatake (河原畑) House, Kyо̄to Prefecture. ‘Hybrid’ roof framing utilising both principal rafters (sasu 叉首) and crown posts (odachi, highlighted in black). The two gable-end odachi are slanted outwards, and together with the gable-end principal rafters (oi-sasu 追い叉首) provide effective longitudinal bracing to the structure.

Section of the Kawarabatake House, showing both sasu (叉首) and odachi (おだち).

In the Sako (迫) house in Yoshino (吉野郡), Nara (奈良) Prefecture, the odachi are combined with diagonal sasu (nana-sasu or sha-sasu 斜叉首) to provide tent-like structures at the gable ends for stability in both directions.

Roof framing of the Sako (迫) House in Nara (奈良) Prefecture. Labelled are the crown posts (odachi おだち), ridgepole (munagi 棟木), gable end principal rafters (oi-sasu 追い叉首), long side principal rafters (hira-sasu 平叉首) and diagonal or slanted principal rafters (nana-sasu or sha-sasu 斜叉首), long side wall plates/beams (keta 桁), gable end wall plate/beams (tsuma-hari 妻梁), and longitudinal roof beam (о̄yuka 大床). The odachi are octagonal in section, 30cm in diameter, and 6m long.

The transition in roof framing from odachi-gumi to sasu-gumi roof framing is well illustrated by minka in the mountainous regions of southern О̄saka Prefecture (see section diagrams below). It should be noted that though the final form is classified as sasu-gumi construction, there are no underpurlins (moya 母屋 or yanaka 屋中), and the common rafters (taruki 棰) span clear from ridge to eaves without intermediate support.

Section diagrams of minka in southern О̄saka prefecture showing the transition of roof framing from odachi-gumi (left, here called shin-zuka kо̄hо̄ 真束構法) through hybrid construction (middle) to sasu-gumi construction (right). Note the absence of underpurlins (yanaka 屋中 or moya 母屋) in the sasu-gumi example.

JAPANESE MINKA XXX - ROOF FRAMING 7: ODACHI FRAMING

In the simplest form of traditional Japanese roof framing, shown in the image below, two forked posts known as muna-mochi-bashira (棟持柱, lit. ‘ridge holding post’) hold up a ridgepole (munagi 棟木) at its ends; on this ridgepole are laid common rafters (taruki 垂木) which simply run down to the ground on either side, and the roof, which is the whole of the structure, is thatched.

The simplest tenchikongen-zukuri (天地根元造り) construction, without wall posts or beams, where the rafters terminate at ground level.

With the development of raised-floor (taka-yuka 高床) construction, this basic structure gained walls, with rows of forked posts known as keta-uke-bashira (桁受柱) in the planes of the long walls bearing wall plates or wall beams (keta 桁), which supported the lower ends of the rafters. In both cases, this system of framing is known as tenchikongen-zukuri (天地根元造り).

Two examples of tenchikongen-zukuri in elevation. Top: without walls; bottom: with forked wall posts supporting wall beams.

A simple agricultural structure with two forked muna-mochi-bashira posts holding up a ridgepole and three forked keta-uke-bashira posts supporting the wall plates or wall beams.

A more sophisticated development of this basic system, tenchikongen-no-miya-zukuri (天地根元宮造), can be seen today in some Shinto shrines, and may have been used in the earliest shrines, going back 1,500 years or more. It should be pointed out, however, that there is no definitive archaeological evidence that tenchikongen-zukuri construction was employed in the earliest built structures in Japan, whether residential or religious, and that, according to some sources at least, the method itself may date back only as far as speculative Edo-era reconstructions.

Kamosu Shrine (Kamosu-Jinja 神魂神社), Matsue City, Shimane Prefecture. The building is an example of tenchikongen-no-miya-zukuri; the thick muna-mochi-bashira post can be seen in the gable wall, running from the ground to the ridge and supporting the ridgepole (not visible).

At any rate, common to all these systems are the muna-mochi-bashira posts than run from the ground to the ridge. In minka, these posts are usually known as udatsu-bashira (うだつ柱). In typical minka construction, however, crown posts known as shin-zuka (真束, lit. ‘true post/stump’) have replaced the full-length ground-to-ridge udatsu; shin-zuka start from and are supported by the roof beams, and in turn support the ridgepole. In the Kansai region, these crown posts are called odachi, which is a variant of the word udatsu (in many regions of Kansai, ‘u’ is or was pronounced as ‘o’). Regardless of what these posts might be called in the many other dialects of Japanese, here we will call them odachi (おだち), and the method of framing that employs them odachi-gumi (おだち組). Most commonly seen in the mountainous areas of the Kinki region (basically the same as the Kansai region), but also found in older minka in the Kantо̄ and Tо̄hoku regions, the method is surmised to have had its conception in the primitive roof framing systems discussed above. The shin-zuka usually bear on longitudinal roof beams called jimune (地棟) that cross above the transverse roof beams (koya-gumi-bari (小屋組梁). These jimune are known as nakaoki (中置) or yuki (ゆき).

A simple example of odachi-gumi (おだち組) or shin-zuka-gumi (真束組) construction, showing the relationship between the crown post (odachi おだち), ridgepole (munagi 棟木), longitudinal beam (nakaoki 中置), and transverse beams (koya-bari 小屋梁, unlabelled).

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Japanese architecture is far better known as an architecture of timber than of earth or masonry. This lack of earth or masonry buildings can largely be attributed to the threat of earthquakes, as there is no shortage of quality building stone or clay in the country.

Where the consequences of structural failure due to earthquake are not so severe, however, stone and clay are used widely, as in the case of garden walls. In these walls can be seen the same qualities that are characteristic of Japanese craft in general: technical sophistication, close attention to aesthetic effects, a love of material variety and the juxtaposition of ‘high’ and ‘low’, and the tendency to break symmetry or monotony with what for want of a better term might be described as ‘quirks’.

A cob-and-tile garden wall with tile ‘roof’. It is unclear if the variation in this wall is the result of repairs over time or if the striated, folded effect is deliberate, inspired perhaps by rock formations. The contrast between the rustic face of the wall and the refined and ornamented hon-gawara (本瓦) tiling (a style of tiling in which flat nami-hira (並平) and half-round nami-maru )並丸) tiles are alternated) is striking.

A stepped rammed earth wall with tile capping and dry stone footing, complete with drainage ‘tunnel’. Though the rammed earth is the structural material, even these walls have timber posts set into them at intervals, to support their ‘roof’ framing.

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A beautiful iron latch on a traditional Japanese storehouse (kura 倉). Unlike half-timbered traditional houses (minka 民家), kura are fully rendered and plastered as a defence against fire.

JAPANESE MINKA XXIX - ROOF FRAMING 6: GASSHO-ZUKURI FRAMING 2

In gasshо̄-zukuri (合掌造り) framing, diagonal bracing members (sujikai 筋違) are known as hagai. The roof structure of the Wakayama House in the Shо̄-gawa region, shown below, is a good illustration of these members. There are the о̄-hagai (大はがい, lit. ‘large hagai’), which, as discussed last week, can be thought of as ‘corner principal rafters’ (sumi-sasu 隅叉首) of a hipped roof (yose-mune-zukuri 寄棟造り) that have been repurposed into major diagonal bracing elements within the gable-roofed gasshо̄-zukuri. They run from the middle section of the ridgepole down to the four corners of the structure. Then there are the ko-hagai (小はがい, lit. ‘small hagai’), slender diagonal members which run between principal rafters to further brace the roof structure against longitudinal lateral forces.

The roof structure of the Wakayama House in the Shо̄-gawa region. The о̄-hagai (大はがい), otherwise known as sumi-gasshо̄ (隅合掌), and ko-hagai (小はがい) are labelled in this gasshо̄-zukuri (合掌造り) roof. The ko-hagai shown are high up near the ridge, but would also be found in the lower part of the roof at the feet of the sasu (principal rafters); presumably they have been omitted for clarity. The dashed lines indicate the external form the roof would take were it a hipped-and-gabled roof, or iri-moya-zukuri (入母屋) in Japanese.

The Wakayama House not a typical example of gasshо̄-zukuri framing, however. Thought to have been built in the early Hо̄reki (宝暦) era (1751 - 1764), it is a rare and extremely valuable survival from the period when the minka of the Shо̄-gawa region were transitioning from hipped roofs to gable roofs, necessitated by the widespread adoption of sericulture in the area. It is thought that the Wakayama House started out as a hipped roof construction, with the gable roof simply being built over it at a later date. This ‘double structure’ gives the roof great stability. The corner and end principal rafters no longer serve as the substructure for purlins (yanaka 屋中), common rafters (taruki 垂木) and thatching, as they would in a hipped roof. One of the end principal rafters (oi-sasu 追い叉首) has further been repurposed as a log ladder (kiza-hashi 刻梯子) by having steps cut into it; this is used to access the upper attic floors.

Whereas the ko-hagai are tenoned diagonally into the long-side principal rafters (hira-sasu 平叉首), the о̄-hagai are often lashed with rope to the principal rafters. Over time as joinery became more sophisticated, the pairs of principal rafters were cross-lapped together at the apex, and in some instances the о̄-hagai developed into a kind of thick penetrating tie that was run through mortises in the principal rafters.

A gasshо̄-zukuri roof in the process of being reassembled, with most of the transverse tie beams (kainagi) in place, and the diagonal ko-hagai clearly visible between the lower halves of the principal rafters (sasu). The pale bands on the principal rafters indicate where the ropes used to tie the purlins (yanaka) to the rafters were.

The same roof fully reassembled and waiting to be thatched. All the transverse members are in place, as are the purlins (yanaka) and rafters (taruki). There are no о̄-hagai on this roof.

Hagai are common in minka built before around 1800 but are not found in minka built more recently than this; instead, thick horizontal penetrating ties (nuki 貫) through the principal rafters are used, just as they are used through the posts in walls. The reason usually given for this change is that advances in techniques for erecting the roof structure made it more logical, but given that hagai are in the planes of the roof faces and therefore present no obstruction to use of the roof space, and also given the obvious structural superiority of diagonal bracing members over horizontal, it does seem to add weight to the idea that the Japanese simply have a deep-seated aesthetic preference for the orthogonal over the diagonal in timber architecture. Regardless, the presence, absence or style of hagai in a minka is one clue available to researchers in estimating its age.

Whereas mortise-and-tenon joints were used in gasshо̄-zukuri framing to connect major structural members such as principal rafters and transverse horizontal ties/beams (kainagi かいなぎ), the purlin — principal rafter and common rafter — purlin connections were only rope-tied. Neso (ネソ, also known as shide-zakura シデザクラ, Amelanchier asiatica) saplings softened by soaking in water were wrapped tightly around the members to be joined; to this joint was added rope made by twisting the bark of the shinanoki (Tilia japonica). Rice straw rope was sometimes used to join members where the loads were not great, but this was not common as rice was not cultivated in the region and so any rice straw used had to be bought from flatland regions.

JAPANESE MINKA XXVIII - ROOF FRAMING 5: GASSHO-ZUKURI FRAMING 1

In this and the next few instalments of this series on roof framing, we will consider gasshо̄-zukuri (合掌造り, lit. ‘praying hands construction’) roof framing, a style of minka found primarily in the basin of the Shо̄ River (Shо̄-gawa 庄川), which flows northwards from the northern part of Gifu Prefecture and though western Toyama prefecture, emptying into Toyama Bay at Takaoka City.

The famed gasshо̄-zukuri minka of Shirakawa-go, Gifu Prefecture.

In principle, gasshо̄-zukuri framing is not very different from the most general type of sasu-gumi (叉首組) construction discussed in previous posts. But as the huge, steeply pitched gasshо̄ roof spaces consist of three, four or even five ‘attic’ levels that are used for raising silkworms, and as sericulture requires good light and ventilation, these roofs must be gabled, with multiple large openings in the gable walls. This is in contrast to the hipped roofs that result from the tripod configuration of typical sasu-gumi framing.

In the region in which gasshо̄-zukuri minka are found, the floor above ground level is known as shita-ni-kai (したニ階, lit. ‘lower second floor’), the floor above that is called the ue-ni-kai (うえ二階, lit. ‘upper second floor’), and the floor above that is the sora-ni-kai (そら二階, lit. ‘sky second floor’). These upper storeys are floored with reeds or timber slats, again to maximise ventilation for the silkworms and their only food, mulberry leaves. It is said that if everything is quiet, the sound of silkworms munching their mulberry leaves on the attic floors above can be heard by the inhabitants on the ground floor.

An upper floor of a gasshо̄-zukuri minka with timber slat flooring.

Diorama showing suspended reed mats holding silkworms and mulberry leaves.

As discussed in a previous post, the lower roof beam framing in gasshо̄-zukuri makes use of bent ‘hockey stick’ beams known as chо̄na-bari (ちょうな梁 or 手斧梁), to account for the height difference between the taller inner jо̄-ya (上屋) or central shu-ya (主屋) posts and the shorter, outer ge-ya (下屋) posts. There is another layer of beams called narashi (ならし) or gasshо̄-bari (合掌梁) over these chо̄na-bari, making the beam framing a two tiered construction.

Cutaway model of a gasshо̄-zukuri minka, clearly showing the chо̄na-bari and three attic floors.

The principal rafters (sasu 叉首) in gasshо̄-zukuri are themselves called gasshо̄, and are particularly magnificent timbers, sometimes 30cm or more square or round; this is necessary both so that they don’t deflect over their long length and for them to be able to carry the large loads from multiple attic floors. To these gasshо̄ are attached intermediate horizontal transverse members called kainagi (かいなぎ) or mizu-bari (水梁, lit. ‘water beam’), which act as both ties to prevent the gasshо̄ spreading or sagging and as beams to support the attic floors.

The uppermost attic floor of a gasshо̄-zukuri minka, partly floored with reed. Note the massive sasu.

It is because of these special characteristics and due to its grand scale that gasshо̄-zukuri framing is classified separately to standard sasu-gumi construction. Recall that in sasu-gumi construction, the principal rafters running from the end of the ridgepole down to the short or ‘gable’ side of the roof are known as oi-sasu (追い叉首, lit. ‘following sasu’; these rafters, together with the corner sasu that make up half of the pyramid structure that gives these roofs their strength against lateral forces, form the end plane of the hipped roof. In some gasshо̄-zukuri, these members may survive somewhat atavistically, concealed within the gabled roof space, as if someone had taken an existing hipped roof and built a gabled roof over top of it, which may be the case. Instead of forming the end plane of a hipped roof as in the sasu-gumi, they serve as diagonal bracing members (sujikai 筋違). What would in a hipped roof be the corner sasu (sumi-sasu 隅叉首, lit. ‘corner principal rafter’) are known in a gabled roof as sumi-gasshо̄ (隅合掌, lit. ‘corner gasshо̄’) or о̄-hagai (大はがい). These members together preserve the triangulating function of the tripod or pyramid framing in the sasu-gumi, and prevent the gasshо̄-zukuri roof from toppling under longitudinal wind or earthquake loads. This method of bracing is only seen in gasshо̄-zukuri and not in other forms of Japanese minka.

Illustration of the peculiar ‘hipped roof within a gable roof’ construction of some gasshо̄-zukuri minka.

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No time to write or translate this week, so instead a picture of easily the narrowest street (lane? squeeze?) I’ve ever seen, in Kyoto, Japan. It’s probably only 15cm from gutter to gutter and less than a metre between property boundaries. Obviously from pre-automobile times, it certainly wouldn’t be allowed if proposed today!